MaizeSatureja montana and Origanum virensThin-film hydration (TFH) method with homogenization and sonicationNon-ionic surfactant-based lipid vesicles (niosomes)Aspergillus flavus and aflatoxin B₁Niosome-encapsulated S. montana EO was most effective in controlling AFB₁ production by A. flavus, while both EOs were able to control fungal growth, with maximum reduction up to 79% and 69% for S. montana and O. virens EOs, respectively, after 45, 60, and 75 days of incubation.[77]Cymbopogon martiniiIonic gelationChitosanFusarium graminearum, deoxynivalenol and zearalenoneAt 700 ppm concentration, nanoparticles were able to inhibit the development of fungi and trigger the production of mycotoxin.[78]Pimenta dioicaIonic gelationChitosanAspergillus flavus and aflatoxin B₁Nanoparticles were reported to have antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic activities at 1.6 and 1.0 µL/mL, respectively.[79]Orange (Citrus sinensis)NanoprecipitationZeinStenocarpella macrosporaAfter four days of incubation, the administration of 4% nanoparticles encapsulated with orange essential oil suppressed over 50% of the mycelial growth.[80]Clove oilWash out method, ultrasonicationWhey proteinFusarium proliferatumMinimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of clove oil against Fusarium proliferatum were 50 μL and 9 μL, respectively. The produced clove EO nanoemulsion was successful in lowering the load of fumonisin B₁ and B₂ and the development of Fusarium proliferatum.[81]Clove oilSolution reduction method–Bipolaris maydis, Rhizoctonia solani f. sp. sasakii, Macrophomina phaseolina, Fusarium verticillioides and Sclerotium rolfsiiAt a dosage of 500 mg/L, essential oil-grafted copper nanoparticles (EGC) acted as potential fungicide in controlling phytopathogens that infested maize, namely B. maydis.[82]AnetholeIonic gelationChitosanAspergillus flavus (AF-LHP-VS8) and aflatoxin B₁At 0.8 and 0.4 μL/mL, respectively, anethole-loaded chitosan nanoemulsion (Ant-eCsNe) reduced growth and AFB₁ synthesis, making it effective against A. flavus (AF-LHP-VS8) and other food-borne molds. Ant-eCsNe enhanced leakage of cellular constituents and inhibited ergosterol in a dose-dependent manner, indicating fungal plasma membrane as the target site.[83]Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth.Ionic gelationChitosanAspergillus flavus and aflatoxin B₁Chitosan-loaded Pogostemon cablin EO (PCEO-CN) exhibited concentration-dependent broad-spectrum antifungal and antimycotoxigenic activity. In vivo studies revealed that PCEO-CN was able to protect maize grains from A. flavus and aflatoxin B₁ contamination in up to 30 days of storage.[84]Cinnamomum cassiaSpray-dryingGum arabic and maltodextrinPenicillium crustosum, Alternaria alternata, and Aspergillus flavusEncapsulated C. cassia EO showed potent antifungal activity against A. alternata, A. flavus, and P. crustosum, with MIC of 5%. During in situ experiments using maize flour samples treated with free EO showed high persistence of aroma as compared to encapsulated EO.[85]WheatCuminum cyminum (L.) and Lavandula angustifolia (Mill.)Emulsion solvent evaporation techniquePolyethersulfoneSitophilus granarius (L.)The most minimal relative growth rate (RGR) and efficiency of conversion of ingested food (ECI) were observed in adults subjected to C. cyminum nanoparticles at a concentration of 20 ppm. The RGR decreased from 0.037 ± 0.003 mg/mg/day in the control group to −0.176 ± 0.01 mg/mg/day, while the ECI percentage diminished from 16.8 ± 0.99 to −336.31 ± 6.95. It was noted that both essential oils and their nanoparticles exhibited a behavioral influence on Sitophilus granarius (L.), and the encapsulation process resulted in enhanced post-ingestive toxicity in the treated adults.[86]Melissa officinalis L.Ionic gelationChitosanTribolium castaneum HerbstThe nanoencapsulated Melissa officinalis L. essential oil demonstrated improved insecticidal efficacy as a fumigant, with a sub-lethal concentration (LC₅₀) of 0.048 μL/mL air. Additionally, during in situ trial in wheat flour nanoparticles, a notable 50% anti-feedant activity was observed at an effective concentration (EC₅₀) of 0.043 μL/mL.[87]Mentha X piperita (L.)Ionic gelationChitosanTribolium castaneum (Herbst) and Sitophilus oryzae (L.)Toxicity experiments demonstrated that M. piperita-loaded chitosan nanoemulsion exhibited significantly greater efficacy against both stored product pests compared to the control group. The inhibition percentage of Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity differed between S. oryzae (52.43% and 37.71%) and T. castaneum (37.80% and 31.29%) during in vivo trials.[88]Coriander, oil, janesville, caraway, and black seedPolymerization technologyUrea and formaldehydeConfused flour beetle Tribolium confusum (Jacquelin) and red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum (Herbst)The results showed that T. confusum and T. castaneum larval mortality increased in a dose-dependent manner. Compared to T. castaneum larvae, T. confusum larvae responded better to the treatments. Compared to coriander or black seed oil, nanoformulated Janesville oil was more effective. Under storage conditions, nano-formulations of coriander, black seed, or Janesville oils reduce fecundity and adult emergence percentage more than controls or free oils.[89]Hazomalania voyroniiHigh-pressure homogenization–Tribolium confusum (Jacquelin du Val), Tribolium castaneum (Herbst), and Tenebrio molitor L.After seven days of exposure, T. confusum (92.1%), T. castaneum larvae (97.4%), and T. molitor adults (100.0%) died when exposed to 1000 ppm of Hazomalania voyronii essential oil nanoemulsion.[90]Syzygium aromaticumMelt-dispersion methodPolyethylene glycolRhyzopertha dominicaAfter 72 h of exposure, the toxicity study showed that Syzygium aromaticum (clove) essential oil-loaded nanocapsules were efficient against R. dominica. The LC₅₀ values for free clove oil and nanocapsules were 576.85 ppm and 175.50 ppm, respectively. According to the toxicity index, free oil was 70% less dangerous than nanocapsules. Nutritional indices like relative growth rate, food intake rate, and ingested food conversion efficiency were all reduced by nanocapsules.[91]Eucalyptus globulus Labill and Zataria multiflora BiossIonic gelationMaltodextrin and Angum gumEphestia kuehniella ZellerThe nanoencapsulation of E. globulus and Z. multiflora EOs enhanced the toxicity effect against Ephestia kuehniella by 10.74 and 4.33 times, respectively.[92]Pelargonium graveolensHigh-energy ultrasonication–Sitophilus oryzae L.Pelargonium graveolens nanoemulsion showed higher toxicity against S. oryzae (LC₅₀ value 2.298 ppm/cm²) compared to free oil (LC₅₀ value 67.66 ppm/cm²). When S. oryzae adults were exposed to treated wheat grains, their mortality rate increased with an increase in concentration and exposure intervals. At 200 ppm, the nanoemulsion showed potent insecticidal activity, prevented the emergence of S. oryzae and protected wheat grains for 3 months.[93]Geranium and bergamotMelt-dispersion methodPolyethylene glycolTribolium castaneum (Herbst) and Rhizopertha dominica (Fab)Due to the slow and continuous release of active terpenes, the EO nanoparticles significantly increased the residual contact toxicity. Furthermore, the nanoformulation changed the nutritional physiology of both stored product pests and increased the contact toxicity of EOs.[94]Achillea biebersteinii, A. santolina and A. mellifoliumHigh-pressure homogenization–Tribolium castaneum (Herbst)Of the 3 EOs, A. biebersteinii EO showed the highest insecticidal activity, and the adult stage was more vulnerable than larvae. Following 96 h of larval exposure, the LC₅₀ values of A. biebersteinii, A. santolina, and A. mellifolium, EOs applied topically were found to be 30.3, 47.8, and 62.3 g/mg insect. When applied as nano-emulsions, the toxicity of all EOs rose significantly, with LC₅₀ values roughly four or three times lower than their typical fumigant activity.[95]RiceApium graveolensIonic gelationChitosanFusarium verticillioides and fumonisins (FB₁ and FB₂)At 0.8 μL/mL, chitosan nanoparticles loaded with Apium graveolens completely inhibited fungal growth, and at 0.8 and 0.6 μL/mL concentrations, they reduced the formation of FB₁ and FB₂, respectively.[42]Pimpinella anisum and Coriandrum sativumIonic gelationChitosanAspergillus flavus and aflatoxin B₁A binary synergistic formulation of Pimpinella anisum and Coriandrum sativum (0.75:0.25) essential oils encapsulated in chitosan biopolymer showed promising antifungal and AFB₁ inhibitory activities at 0.06 and 0.05 μL/mL, respectively.[96]ThymeMicrofluidization–Fusarium graminearum 10-124-1 and F. graminearum 10-125-1Thyme oil nanoemulsion showed better antifungal activity against mycelium growth for both selected isolates at 7.61 ± 0.09 mg/g and 7.25 ± 0.43 mg/g, respectively.[97]Thymus vulgaris–Origanum compactum, Thymus vulgaris–Melaleuca alternifolia and Thymus vulgaris–Mentha piperitaHigh-speed homogenization and microfluidizationChitosan reinforced with cellulose nanocrystals (CH/CNCs)Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus parasiticus, and Penicillium chrysogenumFor Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus parasiticus, and Penicillium chrysogenum, CH/CNCs nanocomposite films loaded with all three EO combinations have shown strong antifungal efficacy, preventing their development by 51–77%. In situ tests revealed that the combination of Thymus vulgaris–Origanum compactum EO (0.19% w/w) nanocomposite treatment and gamma radiation exposure was most successful; the rice maintained its high level of acceptability after cooking for two months without changing its organoleptic characteristics.[98]Hop (Humulus lupulus L.)High-pressure homogenization–Fusarium graminearum, deoxynivalenolBy administering 750 μg of Hop EO per gram of rice, the nanoemulsion was able to decrease the formation of deoxynivalenol (DON) and its derivatives in rice as well as impede the mycelial development and spore germination of F. graminearum. The nanoemulsion altered the total lipid content and chitin in the outer cell membrane, leading to damage in the plasma membrane.[99]Cinnamomum zeylanicum BlumeNanoprecipitationCinnamon oil encapsulated with silica nanoparticlesCorcyra cephalonica (Stainton)When C. cephalonica larvae were fed mesoporous silica nanoparticles orally, the highest effective toxicity was seen. After six days of exposure, cinnamon oil encapsulated with silica nanoparticles at dosages of 15, 30, 60, and 90 mg was the second most effective therapy, resulting in 16.7, 36.7, 50, and 53.3% mortality, respectively.[100]Pinus roxburghii Sarg, Juniperus communis L., and Cupressus sempervirens L.Ionic gelationChitosanAspergillus flavus and aflatoxin B₁A synergistic formulation was developed by mixing 3 EOs (PJC) encapsulated into chitosan nanomatrix (Nm-PJC). Nm-PJC showed improved antifungal (4.0 µL/mL), antiaflatoxigenic (3.5 µL/mL), and antioxidant activities. In situ trials revealed its effectiveness in protecting rice against lipid peroxidation, fatty acid biodeterioration, and preservation of minerals and macronutrients without compromising organoleptic qualities.[101]Artemisia annua L.–Chitosan/TPP (tripolyphosphate) and zeoliteSitophilus oryzae L.Encapsulated A. annua EO showed effective insecticidal activity. On treatment with nanocapsules, glutathione S-transferase activity was enhanced while acetylcholinesterase and esterase activity were markedly reduced in the treatment set as compared to the control.[102]GarlicMelt-dispersion methodPolyethylene glycolTribolium castaneum (Herbst)Garlic EO-loaded nanoparticles were highly effective against T. castaneum adults. The control efficacy of nanoparticles was over 80% after five months of storage as compared to free oil (11% efficacy) at similar concentration of 640 mg/kg.[103]MilletsOcimum americanumIonic gelationChitosanAspergillus flavus and aflatoxin B₁Nanoemulsion containing chitosan-infused Ocimum americanum EO (OAEO-CsNe) showed enhanced antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic activity against A. flavus (MIC and MAIC values, recorded as 0.200 and 0.175 µL/mL, respectively. OAEO-CsNe was able to protect stored Setaria italica seed samples from AFB₁ contamination and lipid peroxidation without interfering with the sensorial properties of millets during one year of storage.[104]Cinnamomum tamalaIonic gelationChitosanAspergillus flavus and aflatoxin B₁At concentrations of 1.0 and 0.8 μL/mL, respectively, Cinnamonomum tamala-loaded chitosan nanoemulsion (CTEO-CsNe) has shown remarkable efficacy in inhibiting the development of A. flavus and AFB₁. The nano-ranged particles were able to interact efficiently with fungal plasma membrane leading to damage and loss of cellular functions. Without changing the organoleptic characteristics, CTEO-CsNe served as a new green preservative protecting Setaria italica against lipid peroxidation and fungal degradation during post-harvest storage.[105]Thymol (T), methyl cinnamate (M), and linalool (L)Ultrasonication and precipitationChitosanAspergillus flavus and aflatoxin B₁Nanogel (Ne-TML), a synergistic formulation of TML (1:1:1), protected Pennisetum glaucum L. seeds against fungal contamination (75.40%) and aflatoxin B₁ production (100%) at a concentration of 0.3 μL/mL for six months of storage. The potential antifungal mode of action of Ne-TML was connected to the reduction in ergosterol levels, cellular ion leakage, impairment in carbon-source utilization, mitochondrial functioning, anti-oxidative defense system, and Ver-1 gene of aflatoxin B₁ synthesis.[106]Aniba rosaeodoraIonic gelationChitosanAspergillus flavus and aflatoxin B₁A. rosaeodora EO-loaded chitosan nanoemulsion (AREO-CsNe) completely inhibited the growth of A. flavus (AFLHPSi-1) and AFB₁ production at 0.8 and 0.6 μL/mL concentrations, respectively. During a 1 year of storage period, AREO-CsNe completely protected Setaria italica seeds from lipid peroxidation and AFB₁ contamination without affecting their sensory qualities. It also demonstrated an excellent safety profile, with an LD₅₀ value of 9538.742 μL/kg body weight.[107]Other cerealsGarlicIonic gelationChitosanAspergillus versicolor, A. niger, and Fusarium oxysporumGarlic EO-containing nanoparticle compositions showed strong antifungal action against Fusarium oxysporum, A. versicolor, and A. niger. Additionally, they increased the fresh weight of barley, oats, and wheat as well as their emergence, root, and shoot development.[108]BreadOregano (Origanum vulgare Linneus) and thyme (Thymus vulgaris)Nanoprecipitation methodZeinListeria monocytogenes
ATCC 7644, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 2593, Escherichia coli ATCC
25922, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium ATCC 14028 It was shown that oregano and thyme essential oil-loaded nanocapsules had a greater antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria as opposed to Gram-negative bacteria. These nanocapsules increased the shelf life of bread for 21 days without producing any colonies of mold or yeast and remained thermally stable throughout the baking process.[109]Clove bud (Syzygium aromaticum) and oregano (Origanum vulgare)Low-speed mixing and ultrasonicationMethylcelluloseAspergillus niger (ATCC 16404) and Penicillium sp. (ATCC 2147)During a 15-day storage period, both essential oil-loaded nanodroplets decreased the amounts of mold and yeast in sliced bread; the antibacterial qualities of the nanodroplets were further enhanced due to their small size.[110]CarvoneIonic gelationChitosanAspergillus flavus and aflatoxin B₁At 0.5 and 0.4 µL/mL concentration, respectively, nanoencapsulated carvone effectively suppressed A. flavus growth and AFB₁ production. In situ research revealed that nanoencapsulated carvone film was successful in regulating the production of A. flavus and AFB₁ in sliced bread over a 15-day storage period at 25 ± 2 °C and 75% relative humidity. It also preserved the CO₂ and O₂ compositions in sliced bread without altering its organoleptic characteristics.[111]Lemongrass (Elionurus sp.)ElectrospinningCassava starchPenicillium crustosum and Aspergillus flavusCassava starch–lemongrass EO (LEO) fibers were investigated for their ability to inhibit Penicillium crustosum and Aspergillus flavus. When compared to alternative treatments, 40% LEO fibres demonstrated strong antifungal activity for both systems in in situ studies (one applied directly to the bread dough and the other as a membrane in active bread packaging), lowering the fungal count.[112]Barley maltLitsea cubebaHomogenization and ultrasonicationChitosanDeoxynivalenolIn addition to lowering the build-up of deoxynivalenol during malting, the addition of Litsea cubeba essential oil-loaded chitosan-based secondary emulsion enhanced the malt’s quality.[113]Rice flourCurry plantHomogenizationLiposomesBacillus cereus ATCC 14579Strong antibacterial action against B. cereus was demonstrated by curry plant EO (MIC = 0.5 mg/mL). Following two, three, and four days of liposome treatment at 20 °C, the population of B. cereus in rice flour decreased by 4.64, 5.05, and 5.90 logs, respectively. Curry plant EO-containing liposomes may work by increasing the permeability of the cell membrane, which allows intracellular chemicals to seep out and inhibit B. cereus.[114]